A textbook of domestic science for high schools

Melt 1 c. granulated sugar till a light brown, but do not let it burn. Add 1 c. boiling water and simmer 10 minutes. Serve with waffles or hot cakes. Sugar Syrup 1 c. sugar 1/2 c. water Boil together slowly for 10 minutes and serve with hot cakes. One tb. lemon juice may be added. CHAPTER XIV NOTE. — Student write a paper giving the history of bread making; varieties of bread used by different nations; primitive and modern methods of milling ; commercial importance of wheat, of flour, and of the different cereals used for bread making ; world's production of wheat. SECTION OF GRAIN OP WHEAT (a) Skins and testa (bran). (d) Endosperm. (fe) Membrane (bran). (e) Cerealin or aleurone layer. (c) Embryo. (/) Scutellum. Wheat. — The wheat plant belongs to the grass family. The part that is used for food is the fruit or seed. This consists of three parts : (1) The germ, or embryo, which is the part of the seed that reproduces. It is composed of cellulose, protein, sugar, and a large proportion of fat. (2) The kernel, or endosperm, which is the central part of the grain. It consists of a cellular structure, which holds the starch granules, some protein, and sugar. (3) The bran or outer covering, which is composed largely of cellulose and mineral matter, and contains a pigment or coloring matter. The bran forms a protective covering for the wheat grain and is made up of six layers. The five outer layers contain little but cellulose and mineral matter, but the innermost layer consists of rectangular cells filled with a protein called cerealin, or aleurone, and is the part of the grain which is richest in protein. In the early methods of milling, this layer was removed with the bran, but the modern methods make it possible to separate the outer bran layer, retaining the aleurone layer, thus making what is known as entire wheat flour. Graham flour is made by grinding all of the wheat with the exception of the embryo. It thus contains the bran. It is useful when coarse food is needed to stimulate the action of the large intestine to prevent constipation. The bran itself may be made into cookies, etc., and eaten for this purpose. Protein in Wheat. — Wheat is the most important grain used for bread making on account of the physical properties of two of its proteins, called gliadin and glutenin. When mixed with water, these substances unite to form gluten. Gluten has the power of absorbing nearly three times its weight of water and forming a tough, sticky, elastic mass. When carbon dioxide is produced in dough, it seeks to escape, but is retained by the expansion of the elastic gluten, thus causing the dough to rise. Wheat is known as spring wheat and winter wheat. The spring wheat is planted in the spring and ripens or matures in the late summer. It is grown mainly in the northwestern parts of the United States and in the Canadian Northwest. The flour made from spring wheat is the best for bread making and for all forms of yeast mixtures.