Boiling is the application of heat to natural products or compounds intended to he eaten hy means of direct contact with water heated to the degree of ebullition, and kept at or near that degree until the food he cooked. In the con- sideration of this process two influences have to he separately valued, namely, that of the heat merely, such as can he applied and studied in the processes of roasting and baking, and that of the hot water as a chemical agent and solvent. When the latter influence prevails, it generally effects such a transformation that the process of boiling becomes one of extraction or of solution. This prevalence has, therefore, to be avoided, for the best boiling is that which causes to the matter to he boiled the least loss of its useful and nutritive constituents. Now, as all boiling causes such a loss, that mode of boiling which causes the least loss is the best. From this it follows that, as the loss is in a direct proportion to the solvent employed, all boiling should be effected in a minimum of water. In practice, tioo degrees of boiling are distinguished, one called boiling absolutely, and another lower one called simmering. In both cases the water is, at the average pressure of the air at the sea-level, at the temperature of 100° Centigrade or 212° Fahrenheit. But in the water boiling violently heat is conveyed much quicker than in the water which merely simmers. Now, as many materials which have to be cooked are bulky, and bad con- ductors of heat, they should, in order to become equably cooked, not be exposed to the influence of water in strong CULINARY PROCESSES 65 ebullition, but merely to such as is in the state of simmering. This latter operation must be continued for the time which may be necessary to cook the material throughout, and this time can be ascertained only by experience. In boiling materials for the table, the cook must take especial care that the water really boils or simmers all the while he is cooking, or he will be deceived in time.* Now, as for the complete cooking of meat or vegetables, the tem- perature of 100° C. or 212° F. is by no means necessary, and as they can be cooked to complete maturity at a tem- perature much below boiling water, it follows that cooks adopt the boiling or simmering only as a visible, easily ascertainable sign of their having a sufficiently qidch source, of heat at work for the accomplishment of the object. If a shiver source of heat be allowed to influence the material to be cooked, but for a longer 2)eriod of time, the same — nay, a better — result will be obtained. This is proved by the Norwegian method of heating a joint just to ebullition, and then placing it, closely covered, in the vessel with the water, in a non-conducting felt box, and leaving it here for many, say six, hours; after that time the meat is found perfectly cooked, and very juicy. This method, therefore, is doubly economical ; it saves trouble, fuel, and time, and produces an excellent result.

AI-modernized reading of the original text

Boiling is the application of heat to natural products or compounds intended to he eaten hy means of direct contact with water heated to the degree of ebullition, and kept at or near that degree until the food he cooked. In the consideration of this process two influences have to he separately valued, namely, that of the heat merely, such as can he applied and studied in the processes of roasting and baking, and that of the hot water as a chemical agent and solvent. When the latter influence prevails, it generally effects such a transformation that the process of boiling becomes one of extraction or of solution. This prevalence has, therefore, to be avoided, for the best boiling is that which causes to the matter to he boiled the least loss of its useful and nutritive constituents. Now, as all boiling causes such a loss, that mode of boiling which causes the least loss is the best. From this it follows that, as the loss is in a direct proportion to the solvent employed, all boiling should be effected in a minimum of water. In practice, tioo degrees of boiling are distinguished, one called boiling absolutely, and another lower one called simmering. In both cases the water is, at the average pressure of the air at the sea-level, at the temperature of 100° Centigrade or 212° Fahrenheit. But in the water boiling violently heat is conveyed much quicker than in the water which merely simmers. Now, as many materials which have to be cooked are bulky, and bad conductors of heat, they should, in order to become equably cooked, not be exposed to the influence of water in strong ebullition, but merely to such as is in the state of simmering. This latter operation must be continued for the time which may be necessary to cook the material throughout, and this time can be ascertained only by experience. In boiling materials for the table, the cook must take especial care that the water really boils or simmers all the while he is cooking, or he will be deceived in time.* Now, as for the complete cooking of meat or vegetables, the temperature of 100° C. or 212° F. is by no means necessary, and as they can be cooked to complete maturity at a temperature much below boiling water, it follows that cooks adopt the boiling or simmering only as a visible, easily ascertainable sign of their having a sufficiently quick source, of heat at work for the accomplishment of the object. If a slower source of heat be allowed to influence the material to be cooked, but for a longer period of time, the same — nay, a better — result will be obtained. This is proved by the Norwegian method of heating a joint just to ebullition, and then placing it, closely covered, in the vessel with the water, in a non-conducting felt box, and leaving it here for many, say six, hours; after that time the meat is found perfectly cooked, and very juicy. This method, therefore, is doubly economical ; it saves trouble, fuel, and time, and produces an excellent result.

The spirit of cookery