It is stated that olive-oil does not bear to be heated as highly as butter, lard, and kidney fat, or suet, as it assumes an empyreumatic taste. But in the absence of precise ther- mometric data, the practical importance of this difference cannot be estimated ; it shows the empirical character of cookery, that the temperature of fats used for frying has never been ascertained with the thermometer by cooks themselves. French cooks distinguish practically two degrees of heat at which things may be fried — one yields the fritiire chaude, and may be termed very hot fat ; the other yields the friture mod&rie, and may be called medium hot fat. (The French also use the word friture for the frying material, the fat itself, although its natural meaning is that of the fried article.) The very hot fat is recognised by a little bread causing in it small ebullition, and then becoming surrounded by large bubbles ; while the medium hot fat causes small effervescence only, and no large bubbles. When the fat begins to be overheated, a more or less dense cloud of vapour appears over its surface, and spreads a disagreeable, penetrating, and adhesive odour. The best heat for frying is about 210° to 220° of the Centi- grade thermometer; at that temperature frying is effected in the shortest time, and the product absorbs the least amount of fat. The matters lohich are fried at temperatures of from 150° to 160° absorb the largest amount of fat {Dubrunfaut). 19 ago THE SPIRIT OF COOKERY Purification of Suet and other Alimentary Fats.* Animal fats and oils which are deteriorated by a par- ticular odour are freed from this by the operation of being used for frying ; after that they can be used in all culinary operations, including the production of pastry, particularly puff-paste. Fish-oil is completely purified of its odoriferous principle by being heated to 330° C., or near the boiling- point of mercury. Fatty acids distil in a current of water- vapour heated to above 100°, while neutral fats remain fixed ; but when the neutral fats have been previously heated to a temperature of from 300° to 330°, they are decomposed, and the fatty acids distil with the superheated steam. The operation of frying itself purifies fats by the elimina- tion of the volatile fatty acids, which in general are the cause of the objectionable odour of fats. To purify fats in general, without imparting to them any flavour whatever, it is necessary to heat them slowly to 140° to 150°, and then cautiously throw in small quantities of water with a brush in minute droplets. This causes the fat to boil violently, almost explosively, with great noise (called ‘ screaming ’), and some spitting of fat abroad ; the operator must therefore keep face and hands at a distance to prevent the formation of minute burns and blisters. Mutton suet is purified of its peculiar odour by being lieated to 150°, at which temperature the hircia is decomposed, and hircic acid passes away. During the siege of Paris some mutton-fat candles were thus purified, and the fat was used for food. Classification of Fried Objects. Fritters are a subdivision of fried objects, and their name has therefore a more limited application than that of the * Cf. Dubrunfiiut, in a dificnssion in the Acadomie des iScience.s on January 1, 1871, reported by G, Grimaud de Cau.\. CLASSIFICATION OF FRIED OBJECTS 291

AI-modernized reading of the original text

It is stated that olive-oil does not bear to be heated as highly as butter, lard, and kidney fat, or suet, as it assumes an empyreumatic taste. But in the absence of precise thermometric data, the practical importance of this difference cannot be estimated ; it shows the empirical character of cookery, that the temperature of fats used for frying has never been ascertained with the thermometer by cooks themselves. French cooks distinguish practically two degrees of heat at which things may be fried — one yields the fritiire chaude, and may be termed very hot fat ; the other yields the friture modérée, and may be called medium hot fat. (The French also use the word friture for the frying material, the fat itself, although its natural meaning is that of the fried article.) The very hot fat is recognised by a little bread causing in it small ebullition, and then becoming surrounded by large bubbles ; while the medium hot fat causes small effervescence only, and no large bubbles. When the fat begins to be overheated, a more or less dense cloud of vapour appears over its surface, and spreads a disagreeable, penetrating, and adhesive odour. The best heat for frying is about 210° to 220° of the Centigrade thermometer; at that temperature frying is effected in the shortest time, and the product absorbs the least amount of fat. The matters which are fried at temperatures of from 150° to 160° absorb the largest amount of fat {Dubrunfaut). ago Purification of Suet and other Alimentary Fats.* Animal fats and oils which are deteriorated by a particular odour are freed from this by the operation of being used for frying ; after that they can be used in all culinary operations, including the production of pastry, particularly puff-paste. Fish-oil is completely purified of its odoriferous principle by being heated to 330° C., or near the boilingpoint of mercury. Fatty acids distil in a current of watervapour heated to above 100°, while neutral fats remain fixed ; but when the neutral fats have been previously heated to a temperature of from 300° to 330°, they are decomposed, and the fatty acids distil with the superheated steam. The operation of frying itself purifies fats by the elimination of the volatile fatty acids, which in general are the cause of the objectionable odour of fats. To purify fats in general, without imparting to them any flavour whatever, it is necessary to heat them slowly to 140° to 150°, and then cautiously throw in small quantities of water with a brush in minute droplets. This causes the fat to boil violently, almost explosively, with great noise (called ‘ screaming ’), and some spitting of fat abroad ; the operator must therefore keep face and hands at a distance to prevent the formation of minute burns and blisters. Mutton suet is purified of its peculiar odour by being heated to 150°, at which temperature the hircia is decomposed, and hircic acid passes away. During the siege of Paris some mutton-fat candles were thus purified, and the fat was used for food. Classification of Fried Objects. Fritters are a subdivision of fried objects, and their name has therefore a more limited application than that of the * Cf. Dubrunfaut, in a discussion in the Académie des Sciences on January 1, 1871, reported by G. Grimaud de Caux.. CLASSIFICATION OF FRIED OBJECTS

The spirit of cookery